A variable whose effect on the response variable cannot be separated from the effect of the explanatory variable on the response variable. Note: Usually confounded variables are lurking variables but only a few lurking variables are also confounded.
The null hypothesis attempts to show that no variation exists between variables, or that a single variable is no different than zero. It is presumed to be true until statistical evidence nullifies it for an alternative hypothesis.
Necessitating a choice between mutually exclusive possibilities
Quantifiable likelihood chance of the occurrence of an event expressed as odds, or a fraction of 1.